Chapter five: conflict
and conflict management
Meaning Conflict
Conflict is a process initiated when one party perceives
negative effects on something it cares about due to the actions of another related
to goals, resources, and policies) or emotional (resulting from feelings like
anger, distrust, and fear).
·
A conflict arises
when parties have mutually inconsistent desires or actions, and it is resolved
when a mutually compatible set of actions is established.
Key
Understandings:
1. Disagreement: Conflict
involves a level of difference in positions, often accompanied by
misunderstandings that need clarification.
2. Parties Involved: People
might be surprised or excluded from conflicts based on perceptions, relationships,
and organizational roles.
3. Perceived Threat: People
respond to perceived threats, influencing behaviors and responses.
Understanding the true threat is crucial for effective conflict management.
4. Needs, Interests, or Concerns: Conflicts
involve substantive, procedural, and psychological needs that go beyond
immediate situations, requiring comprehensive resolution efforts.
Nature of conflict
Conflict arises from
the interactions between individuals, groups, and departments within the
organization.
1. Individual Conflict: Conflict can occur between individuals when there are perceptual and communication problems that lead to misunderstandings. Differences in goals, values, and personalities can contribute to individual conflicts.
2. Group Conflict: Conflict can also arise at the group level. This can be a result of inter-group behavior, such as competition between different groups within the organization. Group conflicts often involve a sense of "us versus them" and can be influenced by factors like group cohesiveness.
3. Interdepartmental Conflict: Conflict can occur between different departments within an organization. This can be due to competing objectives, resource allocation issues, or differences in work processes and procedures.
4.
Stakeholder Conflict: Organizations
may experience conflicts with various stakeholders, including employees,
management, shareholders, customers, and trade unions. Conflicts with
stakeholders can arise from differing interests, power struggles, or political
motivations.
Different Views of Conflict:
1. Traditional View: This view holds that all forms of conflict are negative and should be avoided. It suggests that conflicts are caused by a lack of communication and can be resolved by addressing the underlying causes.
2. Human Relations View: This view recognizes that conflict is an inevitable part of group dynamics and organizational life. It acknowledges that conflict can have positive outcomes and contribute to group performance and growth.
3.
Interactionist View: The
interactionist view suggests that certain types of conflict can be beneficial
for organizations. Controlled and managed conflict is seen as a means to
stimulate creativity, innovation, and adaptability within the organization. It
highlights the significance of keeping a balance between collaboration and
constructive disagreement.
Types of conflict
1.
Conflicts
based on Location:
Ø Intrapersonal Conflict: This
type occurs within an individual as they grapple with decisions related to time
management, choice of partner, moral dilemmas, goals, and aspirations. It can
generate anxiety and tension within the person experiencing this conflict.
·
Approach–Approach Conflict: Arises
when a person must choose between two equally attractive alternatives.
·
Approach–Avoidance Conflict: Occurs
when a person deals with a situation containing both positive and negative
aspects, experiencing similar degrees of attraction and repulsion.
·
Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict: Arises when competing alternatives have negative
consequences, and both are equally unappealing.
Ø Interpersonal Conflict: This
conflict arises between two or more individuals due to differences in opinions,
motives, or actions. Disagreements between two people exemplify this type of
conflict.
Ø Intra-group Conflict: Similar
to interpersonal conflicts, this type occurs within a specific group. It
involves conflicts between members of the same group or team. Examples include
disagreements among members of a choir about certain group-related matters.
Ø Intergroup Conflict: This
conflict unfolds between groups of people, such as solidarity groups, activity
groups, or church denominations. It arises when, for instance, members of one
group are in disagreement with members of another group.
2.
Conflicts
based on Effects or outcomes Produced:
Ø Functional or Constructive Conflict: This
type of conflict enhances decision quality, stimulates creativity and
innovation, and allows for the open airing of problems. Often referred to as
positive conflict, it improves relationships and leads to new perspectives. For
instance, when individuals argue from different viewpoints with an open mind,
they may arrive at an improved position.
Ø Dysfunctional or Destructive Conflict: This
conflict results in impaired communication, reduced group cohesiveness, and the
prioritization of in fighting over common goals. It generates bitterness, envy,
anger, and unforgiveness, often lacking immediate and permanent solutions. This
protracted conflict type is commonly associated with negative consequences.
Sources of Conflict:
1. Value Conflicts: Conflict can arise when individuals or groups hold different values, beliefs, ideologies, or lifestyles. This can lead to disagreements and clashes based on differing criteria for evaluating ideas or making decisions.
2. Organizational Structure: Conflict can be influenced by the structure of an organization. For example, in a matrix structure where employees report to multiple bosses, decisional conflict can arise due to conflicting instructions or priorities. Complex organizational structures can lead to confusion and conflicts among different units or departments.
3. Limited Resources: Competition for limited resources like money, time, or equipment can lead to conflicts. When there is a scarcity of resources, individuals or departments may vie for access to those resources, resulting in conflicts among employees or between employees and management.
4. Task Interdependence: Conflict can arise when the completion of a task or goal depends on the cooperation and coordination of multiple individuals or teams. Reliance on others to perform their tasks can lead to conflicts if there are delays, misunderstandings, or differences in work approaches.
5. Incompatible Goals: Conflict can occur when parties perceive their goals as mutually exclusive or conflicting. In organizations, incompatible goals may arise due to differences in compensation schemes or performance metrics for different departments or individuals. Conflicts can arise until the goals are aligned or the compensation scheme is revised.
6. Personality Differences: Differences in personalities, traits, and behaviors among coworkers can contribute to conflicts. People have diverse ways of thinking and acting, which can lead to misunderstandings and clashes. Understanding and appreciating these differences can help mitigate conflicts.
7.
Communication Problems: Communication
breakdowns, such as poor email exchanges, unreturned phone calls, or misinterpretations,
can result in conflicts. Ineffective communication or lack of clarity can lead
to misunderstandings, frustration, and conflict. Providing clear feedback and
focusing on behavior and its impact can help address communication-related
conflicts.
Level of
Conflict:
·
A low level of
conflict results in inertia and boredom, while excessive conflict leads to
destruction and dysfunction.
·
Managers need to
monitor conflict levels; inducing conflict may be necessary if there is too
little or none.
·
Managers must
act to resolve conflict beyond the optimum level in a way that benefits the
organization.
1. Latent Conflict: Each conflict episode begins with a latent conflict, where underlying factors such as competition for resources or positions exist within the organization. At this stage, the seed of dissatisfaction has been sown, but the actual conflict has not yet emerged.
2.
Perceived Conflict: This
stage occurs when parties involved in the conflict misunderstand each other's
true positions and perceive the other party as likely to prevent or frustrate
their goals.
Ø For example, a sales manager may need additional budget for promotional activities, but the financial manager may not release the funds. The sales manager may perceive the lack of finance as a potential cause for a decline in sales, leading to a brewing conflict.
3.
Felt Conflict: In
this stage, the conflict is personalized and internalized, causing tension and
anxiety for the individuals involved. The differences are felt on an emotional
level, and there is a likelihood of confrontation.
Ø In the example given, the sales manager feels frustrated because the finance manager is not releasing the additional funds needed.
4.
Manifest Conflict: This
stage involves open confrontation and the outward expression of conflict
through overt or covert behaviors. There is recognition and acknowledgement of
the conflict, and it takes the form of conflictual behaviors such as
aggression, sabotage, or apathy. Both parties devise strategies to face each
other and defend their positions.
Ø In the example, the sales manager argues for additional funds for promotional activities, while the finance manager openly turns down the request, citing the allocation of funds for raw material procurement.
5. Conflict Resolution: Conflict resolution refers to the process of resolving the conflict in some form. It involves finding a solution or compromise that benefits the organization and brings closure to the conflict.
6.
Conflict Aftermath: The
aftermath of conflict can have either positive or negative consequences for the
organization, depending on how the conflict is resolved. If the conflict is
genuinely resolved, it can lead to more enduring relationships between the
parties involved.
Ø However, if the conflict is merely suppressed
without being resolved, the underlying conflict may worsen and escalate into
more serious forms. This is referred to as the conflict aftermath.
Conflict management
Conflict management involves
long-term handling of conflicts with institutionalized provisions and
regulative procedures.
Ø It involves finding ways for parties to coexist and
handle disputes without fully resolving the underlying conflict.
Ø Conflict management strategies are needed when hold
irreconcilable opinions parties, and resolution seems impossible, but some
action needs to be taken to make the conflict more constructive and less
destructive.
Conflict resolution
Conflict resolution
aims to identify the causes of conflicts and find ways to reconcile the
involved groups and build new social relationships.
Ø It goes beyond satisfying the parties' interests and
focuses on addressing the underlying sources of the conflict.
Ø Conflict resolution requires a problem-solving
approach and involves identifying causal factors and finding ways to deal with
them.
Ø It aims to find a relatively stable solution that
meets the basic needs of all parties while respecting their values and
identities.
Ø Settlement of a dispute within the context of a
larger conflict does not necessarily resolve the overall conflict.
Ø Settlement focuses on ending the dispute quickly and
amicably, without necessarily addressing the underlying causes of the conflict.
Ø Fully resolving a conflict may require significant
socioeconomic or political changes that restructure society in a more just or
inclusive way, which can be a complex and time-consuming process.
Ø Conflicts may persist because the underlying causes
are deeply embedded in societal structures.
Ø Achieving complete resolution may require long-term
efforts to bring about broader societal changes. Therefore, alternative
approaches to dealing with conflicts, which do not necessarily aim for complete
resolution but focus on managing and mitigating the conflict, may be
considered.
Conflict transformation
Conflict transformation is
presented as an alternative approach to conflict resolution or conflict
management.
Ø Conflict transformation acknowledges the nature of
conflict itself, in contrast to conflict resolution, which implies that
conflict is inherently negative and should be ended.
Ø Conflict transformation recognizes that conflicts
are long-term processes that often cannot be quickly resolved.
Ø It challenges the idea of "management" by
rejecting the notion that people can be controlled like objects and by
emphasizing that the goal should be addressing the underlying source of the
problem, rather than merely reducing or controlling volatility.
Conflict transformation
involves understanding and working with the dialectic nature of social
conflict. Conflict is seen as a natural occurrence in human relationships, and
when conflict arises, it transforms the events, people, and relationships
involved.
Ø The cause-and-effect relationship between conflict,
people, and relationships is reciprocal, with changes in conflict impacting
individuals and relationships, and vice versa.
Ø Conflict transformation, therefore, describes the
natural process by which conflicts change relationships, communication
patterns, social organization, and perceptions of oneself and others.
Conflict resolution model
1.
Avoidance: This strategy involves one or both parties avoiding
or sidestepping the conflict. It may be used when the conflict is minor or when
there are more important issues to address.
Ø Avoidance can be helpful in allowing people to cool down and handle the conflict in a better psychological environment. However, relying too much on avoidance can lead to neglecting important issues and unresolved tensions.
2. Competing: This
strategy is based on a win-lose principle, where one party uses power
unilaterally to make decisions.
Ø It can be useful in emergencies or situations that
require quick decisions. Managers with a high power base may find it easier to
use this strategy, but they should be cautious of surrounding themselves with
"yes" men.
Ø Competing should be used sparingly to avoid a power struggle.
3. Collaborating: Collaboration
involves both parties working together in a cooperative manner to find mutually
beneficial solutions.
Ø It requires identifying areas of disagreement,
examining the issue in detail, and arriving at an integrated solution through
consensual decision-making.
Ø Collaboration can be time and energy-consuming, and it may not be necessary or appropriate in all situations.
4. Accommodating: In
this strategy, one party sacrifices their own interests to accommodate the
interests of the other party.
Ø It involves selfless generosity and obeying the other person's point of view. Accommodating can be used to build goodwill or when the other person's view is stronger. However, individuals who score high on accommodating may risk neglecting their own ideas and concerns, leading to lower self-esteem and diminished influence.
5. Compromising: This
strategy aims to find a mutually acceptable solution by partially sacrificing
the interests of both parties.
Ø It involves reaching a middle ground where neither
party is fully satisfied. Compromising can be a useful approach when other
strategies, such as competing or collaborating, fail. However, it is important
to protect values, ethics, principles, and long-term objectives during the
compromising process and avoid power struggles.