Chapter four
Concepts of motivation
and their application
Definition of motivation
Motivation refers to the collection of processes that govern
the level of intensity, direction, and persistence of an individual's endeavors
in pursuit of a goal.
Ø In
the context of organizational behavior,
motivation
is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
The three essential elements of
motivation are
1.
Intensity denotes the degree of effort and energy an
individual invests in their work. It is the aspect of motivation that is often
most emphasized in discussions.
ü However, high intensity alone does not guarantee
positive outcomes in job performance.
2.
The direction
of effort is equally important. Effort should be aligned with and directed
towards organizational goals and objectives.
3.
Persistence measures how long an individual can sustain their
effort towards a goal.
ü Motivated individuals have the ability to stay committed
and dedicated to a task until they achieve their desired outcomes.
Features of Motivation:
1.
Motivation is a
psychological phenomenon. It involves the inner desire of an individual to
achieve something greater.
2.
Motivation is a
continuous process. As one need is fulfilled, another emerges, creating a
continuous chain of motivation.
3.
Motivation is
influenced by a person's thoughts and expectations.
4.
Motivational
needs are organized and ordered.
5.
Motivation can
be categorized into two types: Intrinsic and Extrinsic.
Ø Intrinsic motivation arises from personal enjoyment
and satisfaction derived from a task.
Ø Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards
such as money, pay, and grades.
6.
Intrinsic
motivation often leads to hard work and high-quality output, while extrinsic
motivation is also influential due to external rewards.
7.
Both types of
motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, hold importance in life, as there are
unsatisfied needs that drive individuals.
Importance of
Motivation
1.
High level of performance: Motivated
employees tend to perform at a higher level. They are more likely to be
committed, engaged, and proactive in their work.
Ø They have a sense of ownership and pride in their
organization, leading to improved quality of work, reduced wastage, increased productivity,
and overall higher performance levels.
2.
Low employee turnover and absenteeism: Motivation
is inversely related to employee turnover and absenteeism. When employees are
motivated, they are more satisfied with their work and less likely to seek
alternative job opportunities.
Ø They have a higher level of job satisfaction, which
reduces the likelihood of absenteeism and turnover.
Ø Employees who are motivated demonstrate a higher
likelihood of remaining with the organization and actively contributing to its
sustained success over the long term.
3.
Acceptance of organizational change: Motivated
employees are more open to organizational change. They are willing to adapt to
new processes, technologies, and strategies because they believe in the
organization's goals and have a positive attitude towards change.
Ø Motivation helps create a culture of flexibility and
innovation, allowing organizations to implement change more smoothly and
effectively.
4.
Organizational image: The
motivation of employees has a direct impact on the organization's image.
Motivated employees are more likely to represent the organization positively in
their interactions with customers, clients, and stakeholders.
Ø They act as ambassadors, reflecting the
organization's values, commitment, and quality in their work.
Ø This positive image enhances the organization's
reputation and can lead to increased customer satisfaction, loyalty, and trust.
Early theories of motivation
A.
Hierarchy
of needs theory
Abraham Maslow
developed a theory of employee motivation known as the hierarchy of needs. This
theory suggests that individuals have five hierarchically arranged needs:
1.
Physiological needs: Basic
biological needs such as food, water, shelter, and sex.
2.
Safety needs: The
need for security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3.
Social needs: The
need for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
4.
Esteem needs both internal factors like self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement, and external factors like status, recognition, and attention.
5.
Self-actualization needs: The
drive to fulfill one's potential, achieve personal growth, and experience
self-fulfillment.
According to Maslow, as
each need is satisfied, the next one in the hierarchy becomes dominant.
Ø To motivate someone, it is important to understand
which level of the hierarchy they are on and focus on satisfying needs at or
above that level.
Ø Maslow categorized needs into higher and lower
orders.
·
Lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs, are
primarily satisfied externally through factors like pay and job security.
·
Higher-order needs, including social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs, are satisfied internally within the person.
Ø It's important to note that the applicability of
Maslow's hierarchy may vary across cultures. Cultural factors can influence the
importance placed on different needs.
B. Theory
X and Theory Y
These theories are
based on the assumptions that shape managers' behaviors towards their
employees.
1.
Theory X, managers
hold a negative view of employees, believing that they inherently dislike work
and need to be directed and controlled to perform their tasks.
Ø This theory assumes that individuals are inherently
lazy and must be coerced or motivated through external means to achieve desired
outcomes.
2.
Theory Y presents
a more positive view of human nature. Managers who adhere to Theory Y believe
that work can be as natural and enjoyable as rest or play.
Ø They assume that individuals have the potential to
be self-motivated, responsible, and seek out challenges and responsibilities.
Ø Theory Y aligns with Maslow's hierarchy of needs, as
it emphasizes the importance of higher-order needs such as self-actualization
and personal growth.
McGregor himself
favored Theory Y, considering it to be a more valid representation of human
behavior.
Ø He proposed various practices, such as participative
decision-making, offering challenging job assignments, and fostering positive
group relations, to enhance employee motivation.
However, it is
important to note that there is no empirical evidence to support the validity
of either Theory X or Theory Y.
Ø These theories, much like Maslow's hierarchy of
needs, lack substantial empirical support.
Ø Before accepting and implementing organizational
behavior theories, it is essential for them to be supported by empirical
research and evidence.
§ Douglas McGregor believed that theory X
assumptions are appropriate
for employees motivated by lower-order needs.
§ Theory
Y assumptions, in contrast,
are appropriate for employees motivated by higher-order needs, and theory X are
then inappropriate.
C.
Two
factor theory
The Two-Factor Theory,
also referred to as the motivation-hygiene theory, was formulated by psychologist
Frederick Herzberg.
Ø He found that intrinsic or motivation factors related to the work itself or outcomes derived
directly from it, such as advancement, recognition, responsibility, and
achievement were associated with job satisfaction.
Ø In contrast, dissatisfied individuals tended to
attribute their dissatisfaction to extrinsic or hygiene factors like supervision, pay, company policies, and
working conditions. When they’re adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; but
may not necessarily result in satisfaction.
Ø He suggested a dual continuum, stating that
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate and distinct. Simply removing
factors that cause dissatisfaction does not automatically lead to satisfaction.
However, Herzberg's
theory has faced criticism. Some of the criticisms include
-
the reliance on
self-reports,
-
the questionable
reliability of the methodology,
-
the lack of an
overall measure of satisfaction, and
-
the assumption
of a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity.
D. McClelland's
theory of needs
This theory focuses on
three fundamental needs that drive human behavior:
1.
Need for Achievement (nAch): This
drive represents the desire to excel and perform according to a set of
standards.
Ø High achievers are drawn to tasks where they
perceive a moderate chance of success, around 50-50 odds.
Ø They prefer challenges that push their abilities and
dislike situations with high or low probabilities of success.
2.
Need for Power (nPow): This
signifies the desire to influence and prompt others to behave in ways they would
not otherwise.
Ø Individuals with a high need for power are motivated
by positions of authority, leadership roles, and the ability to make an impact
or create change.
3.
Need for Affiliation (nAff): This
reflects a longing for close and friendly interpersonal relationships.
Ø Individuals with a high need for affiliation are
motivated by social interactions, belongingness, and the need to feel connected
to others
Managerial success is
closely tied to the need for power and a lower need for affiliation. Effective
managers often have a strong need
for power while exhibiting less need for affiliation.
Contemporary theory of motivation
A. Self-determination
theory
Self-determination theory: This theory emphasizes that individuals prefer to
feel in control of their actions and that tasks that were previously enjoyable
can become less motivating if they feel like obligations.
Ø Extrinsic rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in a
task, making it feel more like something that has to be done rather than
something one wants to do.
Ø Autonomy, competence, and positive connections with
others are also important factors in motivation.
Cognitive evaluation theory: This
theory, which is closely related to self-determination theory, suggests that
extrinsic rewards can diminish intrinsic motivation for a task. When people are
paid for work, their motivation may shift from internal (intrinsic) to external
(extrinsic) reasons.
Self-concordance theory: This theory examines the alignment between
individuals' goals and their interests and core values.
Ø When individuals pursue goals for intrinsic reasons,
they are more likely to attain them and experience happiness, as the process of
striving toward those goals is enjoyable.
Ø In contrast, pursuing goals for extrinsic reasons
may lead to less satisfaction, even when goals are achieved.
Job engagement: refers to the investment of an employee's physical,
cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
Ø It involves being absorbed in one's work,
experiencing a sense of meaning and fulfillment, and being highly committed to
organizational goals.
Ø Highly engaged employees tend to exhibit higher
levels of performance, productivity, and job satisfaction.
B. The
goal-setting theory,
The goal-setting
theory, proposed by Edwin Locke, suggests that setting specific and challenging
goals, along with providing feedback, can significantly impact employee
motivation and performance. Here are the key points about the goal-setting
theory:
1.
Goal specificity: Specific
goals that clearly define what needs to be accomplished tend to increase
performance.
Ø When employees have a precise target to work
towards, they can focus their efforts more effectively.
2.
Goal challenge: Setting
challenging goals, as opposed to easy goals, can lead to higher performance.
Ø Difficult goals can capture employees' attention,
energize them, and stimulate greater effort. People tend to exert more effort
when attempting to achieve challenging goals.
3.
Feedback: Providing
feedback on progress and performance enhances motivation and performance.
Ø Feedback helps individuals understand how well they
are progressing towards their goals, identify areas for improvement, and make
necessary adjustments.
4.
Internal stimulus: Specific
goals act as internal stimuli that drive individuals to take action.
Ø They provide a clear direction and purpose, guiding
employees on what needs to be done.
5.
Persistence and discovery: Difficult
goals can increase persistence and determination.
Ø Individuals are more likely to persevere and seek
strategies to overcome obstacles and perform tasks more effectively when faced
with challenging goals.
C. self-efficacy
theory
The self-efficacy theory, also known as social cognitive theory or social
learning theory, focuses on an individual's belief in their ability to perform
a task successfully.
Ø Self-efficacy refers
to an individual's confidence in their capabilities to accomplish tasks.
Ø High self-efficacy is associated with greater
confidence and belief in one's ability to succeed, while low self-efficacy can
lead to reduced effort and even giving up in challenging situations.
Ø Individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely
to exert greater effort and persistence when faced with difficult tasks.
Ø They view challenges as opportunities to improve and
master the task. As a result, they often achieve higher levels of performance.
Albert Bandura, the
researcher who developed the self-efficacy theory, proposed four ways to
increase self-efficacy:
1.
Enactive mastery: Gaining
relevant experience and successfully accomplishing tasks in the past increases
self-efficacy.
2.
Vicarious modeling: Observing
others who are successful in similar tasks can enhance self-efficacy.
3.
Verbal persuasion: Receiving
positive and encouraging feedback from others can boost self-efficacy.
4.
Arousal: Experiencing
physiological arousal, such as increased heart rate or excitement, can
positively influence self-efficacy.
D. Equity
Theory
Equity Theory, also known as Organizational Justice Theory,
focuses on how individuals perceive fairness in the workplace.
Ø Equity theory suggests that employees compare their
inputs (such as effort, experience, education) and outcomes (such as salary,
recognition) to those of relevant others in the workplace.
Ø When employees perceive a fair balance between their
inputs and outcomes compared to others, they experience a state of equity.
Ø In cases of perceived inequity, tension arises,
leading to motivation to restore equity.
Employees make referent
comparisons to assess equity. There are four types of referent comparisons:
1.
Self-inside Comparing
oneself to different positions within the same organization.
2.
Self-outside: Comparing
oneself to situations or positions outside the current organization.
3.
Other-inside: Comparing
oneself to individuals or groups within the organization.
4.
Other-outside: Comparing
oneself to individuals or groups outside the organization. The choice of
referent is influenced by available information and the attractiveness of the
referent.
Several factors can
moderate the equity perception. Gender, length of tenure, level in the
organization, and amount of education or professionalism can influence how
individuals make comparisons and assess equity.
Responses to perceived inequity: When
employees perceive inequity, they may respond in different ways:
1.
Change inputs: Employees
may reduce their effort if they feel underpaid or increase their effort if they
feel overpaid.
2.
Change outcomes: In
situations where pay is based on performance, employees may alter the quantity
or quality of their work to affect their outcomes.
3.
Distort perceptions: Employees
may distort their own or others' perceptions to rationalize the perceived
inequity.
4.
Choose a different referent: Employees
may select a different referent for comparison to justify their perceived
equity.
5.
Leave the job: In
extreme cases, employees may choose to quit their job if they perceive
significant inequity.
Limitations and expanded perspectives:
Ø Research has shown that overpayment inequities have
less impact on behavior compared to underpayment inequities.
Ø Additionally, not all individuals are
equity-sensitive, and some may prefer lower outcome-input ratios than their
referents.
Ø Equity theory has traditionally focused on
distributive justice (fairness of rewards and their distribution), but
organizational justice encompasses a broader perspective, including perceptions
of fairness in various aspects of the organization.
E. Expectancy
Theory
According to Victor
Vroom's Expectancy Theory, an individual's motivation to act in a certain way
depends on their expectation of a desired outcome and its attractiveness. The
theory highlights three key relationships:
1.
Effort-Performance Relationship: This
refers to the individual's belief that exerting a certain level of effort will
lead to performance.
Ø If employees believe that their effort will be
recognized and result in a good performance appraisal, they are more likely to
be motivated to exert high effort.
2.
The Performance-Reward Relationship revolves
around an individual's perception that attaining a specific level of
performance will result in desired outcomes or rewards.
Ø If employees perceive that good performance will be
rewarded with bonuses, salary increases, or promotions, they are more likely to
be motivated to perform well.
3.
Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship: This
relationship examines the alignment between organizational rewards and an
individual's personal goals or needs.
Ø The theory suggests that the attractiveness of
rewards is influenced by how well they satisfy employees' personal goals.
Rewards that align with employees' aspirations are more likely to motivate
them.
If employees perceive a
weak relationship between effort and performance recognition, performance and
rewards, or rewards and personal goals, their motivation may be low.
Implication of motivation for performance
and satisfaction
Motivation and satisfaction are
two distinct concepts in the realm of human behavior:
Ø Motivation: Motivation
refers to the drive and effort exerted in order to satisfy a want or achieve a
goal. It represents the internal push that propels individuals to take action
and work towards desired outcomes.
Ø Satisfaction: pertains
to the sense of contentment experienced when a want or goal has been fulfilled.
It is the feeling of fulfillment or gratification that arises once a desired
outcome has been attained.
When it comes to job
performance, motivation alone is not sufficient. It is necessary but not the
sole determinant.
Ø The relationship between motivation and performance
is illustrated by using the multiplication sign, indicating that a weakness in
one factor can nullify the other.
Ø In other words, both motivation and the ability to
perform the required tasks are crucial for achieving optimal job performance.
To ensure effective
performance, managers should give priority to hiring individuals who have the
requisite skills and abilities to meet the job requirements.
Ø When other variables are held constant, motivation
and performance do not have a consistent positive or negative relationship.
Ø As motivation increases, job performance initially
rises, reaches its peak, and then starts to decline.
Managerial Approaches for Improving
Motivation
1.
Reward Systems: Organizations
have the option to provide two types of rewards: intrinsic rewards, which come
from within the individual, and extrinsic rewards, which are external in
nature.
2.
Job Design: Job
design involves the process of assigning tasks to a job and considering their
interdependency with other jobs.
·
Job Rotation: This
practice involves periodically moving employees from one job to another,
typically for short durations.
·
Job Enlargement: It
refers to expanding the number of tasks performed by employees within their
current job.
·
Job Enrichment: This
occurs when employees are given more responsibility for scheduling,
coordinating, and planning their own work.
3.
Self-Leadership: It
is the process of influencing oneself to establish the self-direction, and
self-motivation needed to perform the task.
· It takes the view that individuals mostly regulate
their own actions through the behavioral and cognitive (thought) activities.
· The five elements of self-leadership are:
ü Personal goal
setting,
ü Constructive
thought patterns,
ü Designing
natural rewards,
ü Self-monitoring, and
ü Self-reinforcement.
· Constructive thought patterns include self-talk and
mental Imaging.
4.
Empowerment: Empowerment
means creating conditions in which employees perceive themselves as competent
and in control of performing meaningful tasks.
·
Besides
delegating responsibility, managers can empower employees by sharing
information freely and by minimizing red tape and other roadblocks to effective
performance.
5.
Performance Feedback refers
to the extent to which individuals receive direct and clear information about
the effectiveness of their performance as a result of carrying out the required
work activities.
6.
Alternative Work Arrangements: Another
approach to motivation is to alter work arrangements with Flextime, Job
sharing, and Telecommuting.
·
Telecommuting: Telecommuting
refers to the practice of working from home for at least two days a week using
a computer that is connected to the employer's office.
·
Flextime: Flextime
is a flexible work arrangement where employees are required to work a specific
number of hours per week but have the freedom to vary their work hours within
certain limits.
·
Job sharing: Job
sharing is an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split and
share a traditional 40-hour-a-week job.